METABOLISME KARBOHIDRAT (Carbohydrate Metabolism)
Dr. Suparyanto, M.Kes
APA ITU PENCERNAKAN
Pencernakan: proses pemecahan makanan dari bentuk komplek menjadi bentuk sederhana
Karbohidrat: dari polisakarida dirubah menjadi monosakarida (galaktose, fruktose, glukose)
Glukose merupakan monosakarida terbanyak dalam sirkulasi (70 – 110 mg/ml)
Galaktose dan fruktose dikonversi oleh hati dengan enzim yang sesuai menjadi glukose , kemudian masuk sirkulasi
METABOLISME KARBOHIDRAT
Terdiri 3 fase:
Glikolisis
Siklus Kreb
Fosforilasi Oksidatif
GLIKOLISIS
Proses perubahan glukose menjadi asam piruvat atau asetil coenzim-A
Glikolisis terjadi di sitoplasma
Glukose tidak dapat langsung diffusi ke sel
Glukose harus berikatan dulu dengan carrier: G + C → GC → GC dapat berdiffusi kedalam sel
Didalam sel GC → G + C
C keluar sel lagi untuk mengikat G yang lain → sampai semua G masuk sel
Proses ini dipercepat oleh H. Insulin, jika H. Insulin kurang → proses masuknya G kedalam sel lambat → G menumpuk didalam darah → DM
G di sitoplasma mengalami fosforilasi → glukose 6-PO4 (enzim glukokinase)
Fruktokinase → fruktose → fruktose 6-PO4
Galaktokinase → galaktose → galaktose 6-PO4
Glikolisis: proses perubahan glukose menjadi asam piruvat atau asam laktat
Glikolisis terdiri 2 lintasan:
Katabolisme glukosa (glikolisis) melalui triose (dihidroksi aseton fosfat atau gliseraldehid 3-PO4) disebut lintasan Embden Meyerhof
Katabolisme glukosa (glikolisis) melalui 6-fosfoglukonat disebut lintasan oksidatif langsung (pintas heksosmonofosfat)
SIKLUS KREBS
Proses perubahan asetil co-A → H
Proses ini terjadi didalam mitokondria
Pengambilan asetil co-A di sitoplasma dilakukan oleh: oxalo asetat → proses pengambilan ini terus berlangsung sampai asetil co-A di sitoplasma habis
Jika dalam asupan nutrisi kekurangan KH → akan kekurangan oxaloasetat
Kekurangan oxaloasetat → pengambilan asetil co-A di sitoplasma terhambat → asetil co-A menumpuk di sitoplasma
Penumpukan asetil co-A → berikatan sesama asetil co-A → asam aseto asetat
Asam aseto asetat → senyawa tidak setabil → mudah mengurai: aseton + asam β hidroksi butirat
Ketiga senyawa: asam aseto asetat, aseton dan asam β hidroksi butirat → disebut Badan Keton
Meningkatnya badan keton didalam darah → ketosis
Badan keton bersifat racun bagi otak → koma, karena biasanya terdapat pada penderita DM → koma diabeticum
FOSFORILASI OKSIDATIF
Dalam proses rantai respirasi dihasilkan energi yang tinggi → energi tsb ditangkap oleh senyawa yang disebut ATP
Fosforilasi oksidatif adalah proses pengikatan fosfor menjadi ikatan berenergi tinggi dalam proses rantai respirasi
Fosforilasi oksidatif: proses perubahan ADP → ATP dengan cara mengambil energi yang dihasilkan Rantai Respirasi (reaksi H + O2 → H2O)
RINGKASAN METABOLISME KARBOHIDRAT
Glikolisis: perubahan glukose → asam piruvat
R/ Glukose + 2 ADP + 2 PO4 → 2 asam piruvat + 2 ATP + 4 H
Hasil utama glikolisis: asam piruvat
Energi dihasilkan: 2 ATP
Tempat reaksi glikolisis: sitoplasma
Terdiri 2 lintasan: Embden Meyerhof dan Heksosmonofosfat
Siklus Kreb: perubahan asetil co-A → H
R/ 2 Asetil Ko-A + 6 H2O + 2 ADP → 4 CO2 + 16 H + 2 Ko-A + 2 ATP
Hasil utama: H
Energi dihasilkan: 2 ATP
Tempat berlangsung: mitokondria
Sisa metabolisme CO2 berasal dari hasil samping Siklus Krebs/ Siklus Asam Sitrat/ Siklus Asam Trikarboksilat
Fosforilasi oksidatif: proses perubahan ADP → ATP dengan cara mengambil energi yang dihasilkan Rantai Respirasi (reaksi H + O2 → H2O)
R/ 2 H + ½ O2 + 2e + ADP → H2O + ATP
Energi yang dihasilkan: 34 ATP
Total hasil energi metabolisme karbohidrat: 38 ATP
REFERENSI
Harper, Rodwell, Mayes, 1977, Review of Physiological Chemistry
Colby, 1992, Ringkasan Biokimia Harper, Alih Bahasa: Adji Dharma, Jakarta, EGC
Wirahadikusumah, 1985, Metabolisme Energi, Karbohidrat dan Lipid, Bandung, ITB
Harjasasmita, 1996, Ikhtisar Biokimia dasar B, Jakarta, FKUI
Toha, 2001, Biokimia, Metabolisme Biomolekul, Bandung, Alfabeta
Poedjiadi, Supriyanti, 2007, Dasr-dasar Biokimia, Bandung, UI Press
Senin, 12 September 2011
Jumat, 08 Juli 2011
9 juli 2011 waktunya beda
namanya muhammad arivin....
anak PIP yang bandel mampus,,,,
hahay janji coklat tapi????
bokiss berat....
mantan ini....
semoga bahagia di alamnya,,,
analis suruh bnerlayar,,,tag mau lah aku
9 juli 2011
namanya budy,,,,,
anak solo tapi di jogja.,
banyak hal yang aku pelajari,,termasuk soal lelaki,,,
makasih...
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sayangnya,,,aku telat dapatkan semua itu..
jadi alangkah lebih baek kita berteman saja atau kakk n adeg,,,
miss u brother..
Rabu, 06 Juli 2011
7 juli 2011
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aku punya banyak teman,,,tapi merka tag mengerti siapa aku...
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semuany berawal dari perkenalan 4 tahun lalu.....
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maaf.....
aku punya banyak teman,,,tapi merka tag mengerti siapa aku...
aku punya btrother,,,,kakag,,,
semuany berawal dari perkenalan 4 tahun lalu.....
tadi malam,,,aku di jogja,,,liat bintang jatuh,
cz cm gd it q bs lpas mua dahaga bahagiaku,,,
menurutku,,,bahagiaku mahal,makanya setiap orang nglarang aku sama Mr.B aku berfikir 1000 x unt meng iyakan semua nya,,,tag lupa juga aq memikirkan prasan hati temanku,dan aku menandatanganisebuah kontrak yg berisi "tidag dg dia Mr.B lg" aku berusaha tapi aku belum bisa,maafkan aku teman,,mungkin saat ini aku belum bisa wjudkan inginmu,tapi aku brusaha jadi pa yang kalian inginkan,kebahagiaanku ini sulit ku dapat dari mu,tapi aku dapatkan bahagia hanya dengan orang2 yang mau mengerti aku,aku tau untk kebaikan ku,tapimaaf,,,aku butuh wktu,,,
maaf.....
Selasa, 14 Juni 2011
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Ada juga pembuat file ber-ekstensi GIF yang mudah dan dapat kita instal di komputer. Filenya bisa kalian Download di sini Gif Animator Maker
Selamat mencoba.
Tampilan website dan blog anda dengan animasi, bisa berupa animasi teks, gambar dan efek tertentu. Cara termudah membuat animasi adalah dengan menggunakan GIF animasi. File GIF adalah satu-satunya file gambar yang dapat bergerak, sementara untuk animasi yang lebih rumit anda dapat menggunakan flash atau video.
Saat ini kita sedang membahas bagaimana cara membuat animasi secara online, tanpa anda perlu bersusah payah menginstall program GIF animasi, serta mempelajari masing-masing tools dari program tersebut.
Berikut beberapa daftar website yang menyediakan layanan aplikasi editing GIF animasi :
Screenbot – dengan aplikasi ini anda bisa dengan mudah membuat enimasi efek ketikan/typewritter effect pada tulisan yang anda kehendaki, Tuliskan kata dan klik “Create Screed” untuk membuatnya menjadi animasi GIF. Kemudian anda dapat simpan file tersebut ke Flickr atau ImageShack atau menaruhnya di blog, MySpace, LiveJournal dan lainnya.
GIFWorks adalah aplikasi online GIF editor, dengan GIFWorks anda dapat membuat efek spesial animasi, dan fungsi-fungsi diantaranya merubah ukuran, mewarnai dan mengoptimalkan file. Caranya mudah, tinggal upload file yang anda inginkan, dan buat efeknya secara online. GIFWorks website meskipun tampilannya terasa kuno, tetapi memilik aplikasi yang sangat membantu kita membuat animasi secara mudah dan cepat.
GIFMake memiliki aplikasi GIF image generator, anda dapat mengupload beberapa foto dan secara otomatis GIF akan menjadikannya slide dengan jeda waktu yang dapat anda atur.
Loogix membantu anda dalam membuat animasi GIF, Loogix memiliki beberapa efek yang menarik diantaranya Zoom, Recursion, Motley, Swirl. BlackWhite, Painting, Blur. Anda ingin membuat avatar dengan animasi GIF? sangat tepat apabila anda memanfaatkan Loogix.
Gickr dapat membuat animasi GIF yang keren dan lucu, kartun, banner, dan lain sebagainya. Anda dapat mengirimkan gambar itu ke social bookmarking seperti MySpace, Bebo, Hi5, dan lainnya.
Make A GIF satu lagi aplikasi GIF animasi generator, anda dapat langsung mengupload 12 gambar sekaligus untuk dijadikan efek animasi, misalnya efek slideshow. Terdapat pula setting kecepatan animasi dan memperkecil gambar untuk dijadikan buddy icon/avatar.
Dengan berbagai perangkat online diatas, kita dapat membuat animasi secara instant untuk digunakan dalam kerperluan sehari-hari di website kita masing-masing, diantaranya sebagai banner animasi, ucapan selamat, avatar, foto gallery, dan masih banyak lainnya.
Ada juga pembuat file ber-ekstensi GIF yang mudah dan dapat kita instal di komputer. Filenya bisa kalian Download di sini Gif Animator Maker
Selamat mencoba.
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* [159] Cara memperbaiki system restore yang tidak aktif
* [158] Menyembunyikan all program dari menu start
* [157] Memperoleh pengunjung blog sampai ribuan dalam sehari
* [156] Download software format flashdisk
* [155] Merubah tampilan tema windows xp menjadi windows 7
* [154] Cara memperbesar icon quick launch di taskbar
* [153] Cara Install windows 7 menggunakan flashdisk
* [152] Membuat file ISO dari CD/DVD
* [151] Cara menyembunyikan dan memunculkan icon desktop dengan cepat
* [150] Cara mengetahui alamat url asli dari url shortener
* [149] Download software mengembalikan service windows menjadi default
* [148] Cara merubah warna default text window
* [147] Cara menghilangkan taskbar dengan mudah
* [146] Memunculkan tombol shutdown yang hilang
* [145] Merubah warna taskbar windows
* [144] Daftar kumpulan tips tricks windows 7
* [143] Menggunakan tema / themes windows 7 yang tersembunyi
* [142] Cara file video (wmv atau mpg) menjadi desktop background
* [141] Cara mengaktifkan show translucent selection rectangle di windows 7
* [140] Cara disable tombol-tombol di keyboard
* [139] Convert image gambar menjadi text
* [138] Tips memasang gambar diblog atau website agar tetap ringan
* [137] Download gratis software pengaturan startup
* [136] Cara nonaktifkan windows defender windows 7
* [135] Mengaktifkan view thumbnails file gambar di windows 7
* [134] Cara membuat kalender menggunakan MS Word 2007
* [133] Mengatasi black screen of death (BlSoD)dengan blackscreenfix
* [132] Download gratis 32 windows 7 themes
* [131] Antivirus untuk flashdisk
* [130] Menyederhanakan tampilan icon program di taskbar
* [129] Memilih banyak file di windows explorer menggunakan check boxes
* [128] Mengatasi masalah di windows 7 menggunakan fitur troubleshooting
* [127] Mengatasi help and support yang error di windows xp
* [126] Memperbaiki windows atau repair installasi windows xp
* [125] Cara mengambil danmenangkap gambar di layar monitor
* [124] Mengatasi windows tidak bisa booting karena NTLDR is missing
* [123] Cara mengatur besar kecil dan jarak antar icon di desktop
* [122] Memperbaiki file .rar yang error atau rusak
* [121] Memperkecil ukuran ikon di desktop
* [120] Cara mengubah nama identitas komputer
* [119] Cara reset password bios atau cmos
* [118] Mengatasi folder file flashdisk yang terkunci
* [117] Download gratis AVG virus removal tools
* [116] Cara menggabungkan dua cell menjadi satu cell di excel
* [115] Uninstall games bawaan windows
* [114] Cara mengganti background log on screen windows 7
* [113] Cara membuat blog atau website menjadi mobile blog
* [112] Save As PDF pada MS Word 2007
* [111] Mengaktifkan fitur aero snap windows7
* [110] Mengatasi masalah cpu usage 100%pada explorer.exe
* [109] Memperbesar tampilan desktop windows7 dengan magnifier
* [108] Mengaktifkan fitur aero shake windows 7
* [107] Disable User Account Control di Windows 7
* [106] Mengaktifkan Fitur Aero Peek pada Windows 7
* [105] Enable dan disable aero theme pada windows 7
* [104] Merubah default drive atau folder destination windows explorer
* [103] Cara cepat melakukan pengaturan di windows 7 menggunakan godmode
* [102] Cara nonaktifkan wellcome screen pada windows xp
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* [100] Hide folders | Software keamanan drive, folder dan data
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* [95] Software untuk mengetahui bad sector atau bad block pada harddisk
* [94] Menghilangkan pesan “xmnt2002 program not found – skipping auto check” saat booting
* [93] Mengatasi flashdisk yang tidak terdeteksi
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* [91] Membuat menu all program windows 7 seperti di windows xp
* [90] Cara nonaktifkan control panel
* [89] Award, dibulan yang penuh berkah
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* [87] Cara uninstall Internet Explorer
* [86] Membuat attach file pada MS Word dan MS Excel 2007
* [85] Download software tweak windows 7 dan vista
* [84] Permasalahan seputar harddisk dan cara mengatasinya
* [83] Cara agar harddisk internal menjadi harddisk portable
* [82] Paint.Net|Aplikasi edit gambar sederhana yang cukup handal
* [81] Explorer.exe hilang atau tidak berfungsi
* [80] Cara mengetahui informasi system komputer
* [79] Membuat autoplay dan system menu di cd
* [78] Cara membuat hard disk virtual di windows 7
* [77] Suka yang mana ??!!
* [76] Cara shutdown cepat, hanya dengan satu kali tekan di windows 7
* [75] Cara mengatur program standar untuk membuka suatu file
* [74] Windows restart ketika perintah shutdown
* [73] Mengganti font standart pada windows
* [72] Software untuk memperbaiki flashdisk yang rusak
* [71] Sahabat... terima kasih
* [70] Menggabungkan beberapa partisi hard disk tanpa software di windows 7
* [69] Cara partisi hard disk secara aman tanpa software di windows 7
* [68] Cara nonaktifkan autoplay pada flashdisk dan cd di windows 7
* [67] Perhatian dan penghargaan dari seorang sahabat
* [66] System restore windows 7
* [65] Cara nonaktifkan My recent document
* [64] Serial number serial key activasi windows 7 ultimate
* [63] Cara daftar web counter / web statistic : extremetracking bagi blog/web di Indonesia
* [62] Meningkatkan mempercepat kinerja windows 7 tanpa software
* [61] Flock, browser dengan fasilitas menarik yang patut diperhitungkan
* [60] Melihat bentuk atau jenis font secara explorer
* [59] Hindarkan hard disk dari kerusakan
* [58] Cara agar MS Word bisa digunakan mengetik bahasa Arab
* [57] Antivirus lokal terbaik di Indonesia
* [56] Persahabatan lebih kekal dan abadi
* [55] Download gratis top software tweak dan optimalisasi windows
* [54] Rename administrator account
* [53] Computer sering hang atau shutdown sendiri
* [52] Cara nonaktifkan tombol windows di keyboard
* [51] Trik mempercepat download di 4shared
* [50] Download final uninstaller
* [49] Cara membuat perintah rename pada recycle bin
* [48] Cara mengunci komputer dengan lock computer
* [47] Membuat OS Linux portable di flashdisk
* [46] Award Backlink
* [45] Memberi background pada folder
* [44] Cara menyembunyikan menu pengaturan di control panel
* [43] Cara merubah MS Office menjadi berbahasa Indonesia
* [42] Tag buat Syahida Computer
* [41] Microsoft Security Essentials (MSE)
* [40] Menambah informasi pada system properties
* [39] Merubah teks pada kotak dialog dan menu di windows
* [38] Menghapus program dari daftar uninstall
* [37] Mengatasi windows genuine advantage
* [36] Award dari teman
* [35] google pagerank dan alexa rank meningkat
* [34] Pasang iklan
* [33] Mematikan komputer, restart, standby maupun log off secara otomatis
* [32] Kenapa komentar tidak muncul??
* [31] Reset password administrator windows
* [30] Tips agar data selamat dan aman dari kerusakan
* [29] Mengoptimalkan system windows
* [28] Link Exchange
* [27] Desktop Aquarium
* [26] Disclaimer
* [25] Reset Password
* [24] Mengoptimalkan waktu shutdown
* [23] Optimalisasi booting dan startup windows
* [22] Daftar kumpulan software menarik untuk windows
* [21] Linux OS
* [20] Software Compression
* [19] Software Internet
* [18] Software copy hard disk / cloning hard disk
* [17] Software keamanan data
* [16] Tools windows
* [15] Software game komputer
* [14] Software Photo editing
* [13] Software audio dan video
* [12] Software Restore
* [11] Daftar software converter
* [10] Anti virus
* [9] Daftar software office
* [8] Daftar software tweak dan optimalisasi komputer
* [7] Mempercepat waktu booting dan shutdown
* [6] Shortcut keyboard windows xp
* [5] Posting blog dengan MS Word 2007
* [4] Setting handphone sebagai modem
* [3] Setting gprs beberapa operator
* [2] desktop Blank
* [1] Mengembalikan data yang hilang dengan getdataback
Selasa, 17 Mei 2011
Lipids: Fats, Oils, Waxes, etc.
All Lipids are hydrophobic: that’s the one property they have in common. This group of molecules includes fats and oils, waxes, phospholipids, steroids (like cholesterol), and some other related compounds.
[Glycerol]
Fats and oils are made from two kinds of molecules: glycerol (a type of alcohol with a hydroxyl group on each of its three carbons) and three fatty acids joined by dehydration synthesis. Since there are three fatty acids attached, these are known as triglycerides. “Bread” and pastries from a “bread factory” often contain mono- and diglycerides as “dough conditioners.” Can you figure out what these molecules would look like? The main distinction between fats and oils is whether they’re solid or liquid at room temperature, and this, as we’ll soon see, is based on differences in the structures of the fatty acids they contain.
Structure of Fatty Acids
[Triglyceride] The “tail” of a fatty acid is a long hydrocarbon chain, making it hydrophobic. The “head” of the molecule is a carboxyl group which is hydrophilic. Fatty acids are the main component of soap, where their tails are soluble in oily dirt and their heads are soluble in water to emulsify and wash away the oily dirt. However, when the head end is attached to glycerol to form a fat, that whole molecule is hydrophobic.
[Fatty Acids] The terms saturated, mono-unsaturated, and poly-unsaturated refer to the number of hydrogens attached to the hydrocarbon tails of the fatty acids as compared to the number of double bonds between carbon atoms in the tail. Fats, which are mostly from animal sources, have all single bonds between the carbons in their fatty acid tails, thus all the carbons are also bonded to the maximum number of hydrogens possible. Since the fatty acids in these triglycerides contain the maximum possible amouunt of hydrogens, these would be called saturated fats. The hydrocarbon chains in these fatty acids are, thus, fairly straight and can pack closely together, making these fats solid at room temperature. Oils, mostly from plant sources, have some double bonds between some of the carbons in the hydrocarbon tail, causing bends or “kinks” in the shape of the molecules. Because some of the carbons share double bonds, they’re not bonded to as many hydrogens as they could if they weren’t double bonded to each other. Therefore these oils are called unsaturated fats. Because of the kinks in the hydrocarbon tails, unsaturated fats can’t pack as closely together, making them liquid at room temperature. Many people have heard that the unsaturated fats are “healthier” than the saturated ones. Hydrogenated vegetable oil (as in shortening and commercial peanut butters where a solid consistency is sought) started out as “good” unsaturated oil. However, this commercial product has had all the double bonds artificially broken and hydrogens artificially added (in a chemistry lab-type setting) to turn it into saturated fat that bears no resemblance to the original oil from which it came (so it will be solid at room temperature).
[Cis and Trans Bonds] In unsaturated fatty acids, there are two ways the pieces of the hydrocarbon tail can be arranged around a C=C double bond. In cis bonds, the two pieces of the carbon chain on either side of the double bond are either both “up” or both “down,” such that both are on the same side of the molecule. In trans bonds, the two pieces of the molecule are on opposite sides of the double bond, that is, one “up” and one “down” across from each other. Naturally-occurring unsaturated vegetable oils have almost all cis bonds, but using oil for frying causes some of the cis bonds to convert to trans bonds. If oil is used only once like when you fry an egg, only a few of the bonds do this so it’s not too bad. However, if oil is constantly reused, like in fast food French fry machines, more and more of the cis bonds are changed to trans until significant numbers of fatty acids with trans bonds build up. The reason this is of concern is that fatty acids with trans bonds are carcinogenic, or cancer-causing. The levels of trans fatty acids in highly-processed, lipid-containing products such as margarine are quite high, and I have heard that the government is considering requiring that the amounts of trans fatty acids in such products be listed on the labels.
We need fats in our bodies and in our diet. Animals in general use fat for energy storage because fat stores 9 KCal/g of energy. Plants, which don’t move around, can afford to store food for energy in a less compact but more easily accessible form, so they use starch (a carbohydrate, NOT A LIPID) for energy storage. Carbohydrates and proteins store only 4 KCal/g of energy, so fat stores over twice as much energy/gram as carbohydrates or proteins. By the way, this is also related to the idea behind some of the high-carbohydrate weight loss diets. The human body burns carbohydrates and fats for fuel in a given proportion to each other. The theory behind these diets is that if they supply carbohydrates but not fats, then it is hoped that the fat needed to balance with the sugar will be taken from the dieter’s body stores. Fat is also is used in our bodies to a) cushion vital organs like the kidneys and b) serve as insulation, especially just beneath the skin.
Phospholipids
[Lecithin] Phospholipids are made from glycerol, two fatty acids, and (in place of the third fatty acid) a phosphate group with some other molecule attached to its other end. The hydrocarbon tails of the fatty acids are still hydrophobic, but the phosphate group end of the molecule is hydrophilic because of the oxygens with all of their pairs of unshared electrons. This means that phospholipids are soluble in both water and oil.
[Mayo Recipe] An emulsifying agent is a substance which is soluble in both oil and water, thus enabling the two to mix. A “famous” phospholipid is lecithin which is found in egg yolk and soybeans. Egg yolk is mostly water but has a lot of lipids, especially cholesterol, which are needed by the developing chick. Lecithin is used to emulsify the lipids and hold them in the water as an emulsion. Lecithin is the basis of the classic emulsion known as mayonnaise.
[Phospholipid Bilayer] Our cell membranes are made mostly of phospholipids arranged in a double layer with the tails from both layers “inside” (facing toward each other) and the heads facing “out” (toward the watery environment) on both surfaces.
Steroids
[Cholesterol] The general structure of cholesterol consists of two six-membered rings side-by-side and sharing one side in common, a third six-membered ring off the top corner of the right ring, and a five-membered ring attached to the right side of that. The central core of this molecule, consisting of four fused rings, is shared by all steroids, including estrogen (estradiol), progesterone, corticosteroids such as cortisol (cortisone), aldosterone, testosterone, and Vitamin D. In the various types of steroids, various other groups/molecules are attached around the edges. Know how to draw the four rings that make up the central structure.
Cholesterol is not a “bad guy!” Our bodies make about 2 g of cholesterol per day, and that makes up about 85% of blood cholesterol, while only about 15% comes from dietary sources. Cholesterol is the precursor to our sex hormones and Vitamin D. Vitamin D is formed by the action of UV light in sunlight on cholesterol molecules that have “risen” to near the surface of the skin. At least one source I read suggested that people not shower immediately after being in the sun, but wait at least ½ hour for the new Vitamin D to be absorbed deeper into the skin. Our cell membranes contain a lot of cholesterol (in between the phospholipids) to help keep them “fluid” even when our cells are exposed to cooler temperatures.
Many people have hear the claims that egg yolk contains too much cholesterol, thus should not be eaten. An interesting study was done at Purdue University a number of years ago to test this. Men in one group each ate an egg a day, while men in another group were not allowed to eat eggs. Each of these groups was further subdivided such that half the men got “lots” of exercise while the other half were “couch potatoes.” The results of this experiment showed no significant difference in blood cholesterol levels between egg-eaters and non-egg-eaters while there was a very significant difference between the men who got exercise and those who didn’t.
Lipoproteins are clusters of proteins and lipids all tangled up together. These act as a means of carrying lipids, including cholesterol, around in our blood. There are two main categories of lipoproteins distinguished by how compact/dense they are. LDL or low density lipoprotein is the “bad guy,” being associated with deposition of “cholesterol” on the walls of someone’s arteries. HDL or high density lipoprotein is the “good guy,” being associated with carrying “cholesterol” out of the blood system, and is more dense/more compact than LDL.
References:
Borror, Donald J. 1960. Dictionary of Root Words and Combining Forms. Mayfield Publ. Co.
Campbell, Neil A., Lawrence G. Mitchell, Jane B. Reece. 1999. Biology, 5th Ed. Benjamin/Cummings Publ. Co., Inc. Menlo Park, CA. (plus earlier editions)
Campbell, Neil A., Lawrence G. Mitchell, Jane B. Reece. 1999. Biology: Concepts and Connections, 3rd Ed. Benjamin/Cummings Publ. Co., Inc. Menlo Park, CA. (plus earlier editions)
Lappé, Francis Moore. 1982. Diet for a Small Planet, 10th Anniversary Ed. Ballantine Books. New York.
Lappé, Francis Moore. 1991. Diet for a Small Planet, 20th Anniversary Ed. Ballantine Books. New York.
Marchuk, William N. 1992. A Life Science Lexicon. Wm. C. Brown Publishers, Dubuque, IA.
Sienko, Michell J. and Robert A. Plane. 1966. Chemistry: Principles and Properties. McGraw-Hill Book Co., NY. (and other chemistry texts and handbooks)
[Glycerol]
Fats and oils are made from two kinds of molecules: glycerol (a type of alcohol with a hydroxyl group on each of its three carbons) and three fatty acids joined by dehydration synthesis. Since there are three fatty acids attached, these are known as triglycerides. “Bread” and pastries from a “bread factory” often contain mono- and diglycerides as “dough conditioners.” Can you figure out what these molecules would look like? The main distinction between fats and oils is whether they’re solid or liquid at room temperature, and this, as we’ll soon see, is based on differences in the structures of the fatty acids they contain.
Structure of Fatty Acids
[Triglyceride] The “tail” of a fatty acid is a long hydrocarbon chain, making it hydrophobic. The “head” of the molecule is a carboxyl group which is hydrophilic. Fatty acids are the main component of soap, where their tails are soluble in oily dirt and their heads are soluble in water to emulsify and wash away the oily dirt. However, when the head end is attached to glycerol to form a fat, that whole molecule is hydrophobic.
[Fatty Acids] The terms saturated, mono-unsaturated, and poly-unsaturated refer to the number of hydrogens attached to the hydrocarbon tails of the fatty acids as compared to the number of double bonds between carbon atoms in the tail. Fats, which are mostly from animal sources, have all single bonds between the carbons in their fatty acid tails, thus all the carbons are also bonded to the maximum number of hydrogens possible. Since the fatty acids in these triglycerides contain the maximum possible amouunt of hydrogens, these would be called saturated fats. The hydrocarbon chains in these fatty acids are, thus, fairly straight and can pack closely together, making these fats solid at room temperature. Oils, mostly from plant sources, have some double bonds between some of the carbons in the hydrocarbon tail, causing bends or “kinks” in the shape of the molecules. Because some of the carbons share double bonds, they’re not bonded to as many hydrogens as they could if they weren’t double bonded to each other. Therefore these oils are called unsaturated fats. Because of the kinks in the hydrocarbon tails, unsaturated fats can’t pack as closely together, making them liquid at room temperature. Many people have heard that the unsaturated fats are “healthier” than the saturated ones. Hydrogenated vegetable oil (as in shortening and commercial peanut butters where a solid consistency is sought) started out as “good” unsaturated oil. However, this commercial product has had all the double bonds artificially broken and hydrogens artificially added (in a chemistry lab-type setting) to turn it into saturated fat that bears no resemblance to the original oil from which it came (so it will be solid at room temperature).
[Cis and Trans Bonds] In unsaturated fatty acids, there are two ways the pieces of the hydrocarbon tail can be arranged around a C=C double bond. In cis bonds, the two pieces of the carbon chain on either side of the double bond are either both “up” or both “down,” such that both are on the same side of the molecule. In trans bonds, the two pieces of the molecule are on opposite sides of the double bond, that is, one “up” and one “down” across from each other. Naturally-occurring unsaturated vegetable oils have almost all cis bonds, but using oil for frying causes some of the cis bonds to convert to trans bonds. If oil is used only once like when you fry an egg, only a few of the bonds do this so it’s not too bad. However, if oil is constantly reused, like in fast food French fry machines, more and more of the cis bonds are changed to trans until significant numbers of fatty acids with trans bonds build up. The reason this is of concern is that fatty acids with trans bonds are carcinogenic, or cancer-causing. The levels of trans fatty acids in highly-processed, lipid-containing products such as margarine are quite high, and I have heard that the government is considering requiring that the amounts of trans fatty acids in such products be listed on the labels.
We need fats in our bodies and in our diet. Animals in general use fat for energy storage because fat stores 9 KCal/g of energy. Plants, which don’t move around, can afford to store food for energy in a less compact but more easily accessible form, so they use starch (a carbohydrate, NOT A LIPID) for energy storage. Carbohydrates and proteins store only 4 KCal/g of energy, so fat stores over twice as much energy/gram as carbohydrates or proteins. By the way, this is also related to the idea behind some of the high-carbohydrate weight loss diets. The human body burns carbohydrates and fats for fuel in a given proportion to each other. The theory behind these diets is that if they supply carbohydrates but not fats, then it is hoped that the fat needed to balance with the sugar will be taken from the dieter’s body stores. Fat is also is used in our bodies to a) cushion vital organs like the kidneys and b) serve as insulation, especially just beneath the skin.
Phospholipids
[Lecithin] Phospholipids are made from glycerol, two fatty acids, and (in place of the third fatty acid) a phosphate group with some other molecule attached to its other end. The hydrocarbon tails of the fatty acids are still hydrophobic, but the phosphate group end of the molecule is hydrophilic because of the oxygens with all of their pairs of unshared electrons. This means that phospholipids are soluble in both water and oil.
[Mayo Recipe] An emulsifying agent is a substance which is soluble in both oil and water, thus enabling the two to mix. A “famous” phospholipid is lecithin which is found in egg yolk and soybeans. Egg yolk is mostly water but has a lot of lipids, especially cholesterol, which are needed by the developing chick. Lecithin is used to emulsify the lipids and hold them in the water as an emulsion. Lecithin is the basis of the classic emulsion known as mayonnaise.
[Phospholipid Bilayer] Our cell membranes are made mostly of phospholipids arranged in a double layer with the tails from both layers “inside” (facing toward each other) and the heads facing “out” (toward the watery environment) on both surfaces.
Steroids
[Cholesterol] The general structure of cholesterol consists of two six-membered rings side-by-side and sharing one side in common, a third six-membered ring off the top corner of the right ring, and a five-membered ring attached to the right side of that. The central core of this molecule, consisting of four fused rings, is shared by all steroids, including estrogen (estradiol), progesterone, corticosteroids such as cortisol (cortisone), aldosterone, testosterone, and Vitamin D. In the various types of steroids, various other groups/molecules are attached around the edges. Know how to draw the four rings that make up the central structure.
Cholesterol is not a “bad guy!” Our bodies make about 2 g of cholesterol per day, and that makes up about 85% of blood cholesterol, while only about 15% comes from dietary sources. Cholesterol is the precursor to our sex hormones and Vitamin D. Vitamin D is formed by the action of UV light in sunlight on cholesterol molecules that have “risen” to near the surface of the skin. At least one source I read suggested that people not shower immediately after being in the sun, but wait at least ½ hour for the new Vitamin D to be absorbed deeper into the skin. Our cell membranes contain a lot of cholesterol (in between the phospholipids) to help keep them “fluid” even when our cells are exposed to cooler temperatures.
Many people have hear the claims that egg yolk contains too much cholesterol, thus should not be eaten. An interesting study was done at Purdue University a number of years ago to test this. Men in one group each ate an egg a day, while men in another group were not allowed to eat eggs. Each of these groups was further subdivided such that half the men got “lots” of exercise while the other half were “couch potatoes.” The results of this experiment showed no significant difference in blood cholesterol levels between egg-eaters and non-egg-eaters while there was a very significant difference between the men who got exercise and those who didn’t.
Lipoproteins are clusters of proteins and lipids all tangled up together. These act as a means of carrying lipids, including cholesterol, around in our blood. There are two main categories of lipoproteins distinguished by how compact/dense they are. LDL or low density lipoprotein is the “bad guy,” being associated with deposition of “cholesterol” on the walls of someone’s arteries. HDL or high density lipoprotein is the “good guy,” being associated with carrying “cholesterol” out of the blood system, and is more dense/more compact than LDL.
References:
Borror, Donald J. 1960. Dictionary of Root Words and Combining Forms. Mayfield Publ. Co.
Campbell, Neil A., Lawrence G. Mitchell, Jane B. Reece. 1999. Biology, 5th Ed. Benjamin/Cummings Publ. Co., Inc. Menlo Park, CA. (plus earlier editions)
Campbell, Neil A., Lawrence G. Mitchell, Jane B. Reece. 1999. Biology: Concepts and Connections, 3rd Ed. Benjamin/Cummings Publ. Co., Inc. Menlo Park, CA. (plus earlier editions)
Lappé, Francis Moore. 1982. Diet for a Small Planet, 10th Anniversary Ed. Ballantine Books. New York.
Lappé, Francis Moore. 1991. Diet for a Small Planet, 20th Anniversary Ed. Ballantine Books. New York.
Marchuk, William N. 1992. A Life Science Lexicon. Wm. C. Brown Publishers, Dubuque, IA.
Sienko, Michell J. and Robert A. Plane. 1966. Chemistry: Principles and Properties. McGraw-Hill Book Co., NY. (and other chemistry texts and handbooks)
Rabu, 11 Mei 2011
Salmonella typosa
| Salmonella | |
|---|---|
 | |
| Scientific classification | |
| Superkingdom: | Bacteria |
| Kingdom: | Bacteria |
| Phylum: | Proteobacteria |
| Class: | Gammaproteobacteria |
| Order: | Enterobacteriales |
| Family: | Enterobacteriaceae |
| Genus: | Salmonella Lignieres 1900 |
| Species | |
| S. bongori S. enterica | |
Salmonella is closely related to the Escherichia genus and are found worldwide in cold- and warm-blooded animals (including humans), and in the environment. They cause illnesses like typhoid fever, paratyphoid fever, and the foodborne illness.[2]
Salmonella is typically pronounced with the initial letter "L," although it is named for pathologist Daniel Elmer Salmon.
Enteritis Salmonellosis or Food Poisoning Salmonella
In Germany, Salmonella infections must be reported.[3] Between 1990 and 2005, the number of officially recorded cases decreased from approximately 200,000 cases to approximately 50,000. It is estimated that every fifth person in Germany is a carrier of Salmonella. In the USA, there are approximately 40,000 cases of Salmonella infection reported each year.[4] According to the World Health Organization, over 16 million people worldwide are infected with typhoid fever each year, with 500,000 to 600,000 fatal cases.
Salmonella can survive for weeks outside a living body. They have been found in dried excrement after more than 2.5 years.[citation needed] Salmonella are not destroyed by freezing.[5][6] Ultraviolet radiation and heat accelerate their demise; they perish after being heated to 55 °C (131 °F) for one hour, or to 60 °C (140 °F) for half an hour.[citation needed] To protect against Salmonella infection, it is recommended that food be heated for at least ten minutes at 75 °C (167 °F) so that the centre of the food reaches this temperature.[7][8]
The AvrA toxin injected by the type three secretion system of Salmonella typhimurium works to inhibit the innate immune system by virtue of its serine/threonine acetyltransferase activity and requires binding to eukaryotic target cell phytic acid (IP6).[9] This leaves the host more susceptible to infection. In a 2011 paper,[10] Yale University School of Medicine researchers described in detail how Salmonella is able to make these proteins line up in just the right sequence to invade host cells. "These mechanisms present us with novel targets that might form the basis for the development of an entirely new class of anti-microbials," said Professor Dr. Jorge Galan, senior author of the paper and the Lucille P. Markey Professor of Microbial Pathogenesis and chair of the Section of Microbial Pathogenesis at Yale. In the new National Institutes of Health (NIH)-funded study, Galan and colleagues (Maria Lara-Tejero, Junya Kato, Samuel Wagner, and Xiaoyun Liu) identify what they call a bacterial sorting platform, which attracts needed proteins and lines them up in a specific order. If the proteins do not line up properly, Salmonella, as well as many other bacterial pathogens, cannot "inject" them into host cells to commandeer host cell functions, the lab has found. Understanding how this machine works raises the possibility that new therapies can be developed which disable this protein delivery machine and therefore thwart the ability of the bacterium to become pathogenic. The process would not kill the bacteria as most antibiotics do, but would cripple its ability to do harm. In theory, this means that bacteria such as Salmonella might not develop resistance to new therapies as quickly as they usually do to conventional antibiotics.
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